History
Date
Development
Antiquity:
Greek myths of Hephaestus and Pygmalion incorporated the idea of intelligent robots (such as Talos) and artificial beings (such as Galatea and Pandora).[1]
Sacred mechanical statues built in Egypt and Greece were believed to be capable of wisdom and emotion. Hermes Trismegistus would write "they have sensus and spiritus ... by discovering the true nature of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it." Mosaic law prohibits the use of automatons in religion.[2]
10th century BC:
Yan Shi presented King Mu of Zhou with mechanical men which were capable of moving their bodies independently.[3]
384 BC–322 BC:
Aristotle described the syllogism, a method of formal, mechanical thought and theory of knowledge in the Organon.[4][5]
3rd century BC:
Ctesibius invents a mechanical water clock with an alarm. This was the first example of a feedback mechanism.[citation needed]
1st century:
Hero of Alexandria created mechanical men and other automatons.[6]
260:
Porphyry wrote Isagogê which categorized knowledge and logic.[7]
~800:
Jabir ibn Hayyan developed the Arabic alchemical theory of Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human life.[8]
1206:
Ismail al-Jazari created a programmable orchestra of mechanical human beings.[9]
1275: Ramon Llull, Spanish theologian, invents the Ars Magna, a tool for combining concepts mechanically based on an Arabic astrological tool, the Zairja. Llull described his machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic truth and facts to produce advanced knowledge. The method would be developed further by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century.[10]
~1500:
Paracelsus claimed to have created an artificial man out of magnetism, sperm and alchemy.[11]
~1580:
Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague is said to have invented the Golem, a clay man brought to life.[12]
Early 17th century:
René Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (but that mental phenomena are of a different "substance").[13]
1620:
Francis Bacon developed empirical theory of knowledge and introduced inductive logic in his work Novum Organum, a play on Aristotle's title Organon.[14][15]
1623:
Wilhelm Schickard drew a calculating clock on a letter to Kepler. This will be the first of five unsuccessful attempts at designing a direct entry calculating clock in the 17th century (including the designs of Tito Burattini, Samuel Morland and René Grillet).[16]
1641:
Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning".[17][18]
1642:
Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator,[19] the first digital calculating machine.[20]
1672:
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner to do multiplication and division. He also invented the binary numeral system and envisioned a universal calculus of reasoning (alphabet of human thought) by which arguments could be decided mechanically. Leibniz worked on assigning a specific number to each and every object in the world, as a prelude to an algebraic solution to all possible problems.[21]
1726:
Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, which includes this description of the Engine, a machine on the island of Laputa: "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations " by using this "Contrivance", "the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study."[22] The machine is a parody of Ars Magna, one of the inspirations of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz' mechanism.
1750:
Julien Offray de La Mettrie published L'Homme Machine, which argued that human thought is strictly mechanical.[23]
1763:
Thomas Bayes's work An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances, published two years after his death, laid the foundations of Bayes' theorem.[citation needed]
1769:
Wolfgang von Kempelen built and toured with his chess-playing automaton, The Turk, which Kempelen claimed could defeat human players.[24] The Turk was later shown to be a hoax, involving a human chess player.
1805:
Adrien-Marie Legendre describes the "méthode des moindres carrés", known in English as the least squares method. The least squares method is used widely in data fitting.[25]
1818:
Mary Shelley published the story of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus, a fictional consideration of the ethics of creating sentient beings.[26]
1822–1859:
Charles Babbage & Ada Lovelace worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.[27]
1837:
The mathematician Bernard Bolzano made the first modern attempt to formalize semantics.[28]
1854:
George Boole set out to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed, to give expression to them in the symbolic language of a calculus", inventing Boolean algebra.[29]
1863:
Samuel Butler suggested that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity.[30]
McCorduck 2004, pp. 4–5
^ McCorduck (2004, pp. 5–9)
^ Needham! 1986, p. 53
^ Richard McKeon, ed. (1941). The Organon. Random House with Oxford University Press.
^ Giles, Timothy (2016). "Aristotle Writing Science: An Application of His Theory". Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. 46: 83–104. doi:10.1177/0047281615600633. S2CID 170906960.
^ McCorduck 2004, p. 6
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 366
^ O'Connor, Kathleen Malone (1994), The alchemical creation of life (takwin) and other concepts of Genesis in medieval Islam, University of Pennsylvania, pp. 1–435, retrieved 10 January 2007.
^ A Thirteenth Century Programmable Robot Archived 19 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 10–12, 37
^ McCorduck, pp. 14–15, Buchanan 2005, p. 50
^ Sir Francis Bacon (1620). The New Organon: Novem Organum Scientiarum.
^ Sir Francis Bacon (2000). Francis Bacon: The New Organon (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy). Cambridge University Press.
^ Please see Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines
^ McCorduck 2004, p. 42
^ Please see: Pascal's calculator#Pascal versus Schickard
^ McCorduck 2004, p. 26
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 41–42
^ Quoted in McCorduck 2004, p. 317
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 43
^ McCorduck 2004, p. 17
^ Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805). Nouvelles méthodes pour la détermination des orbites des comètes (in French). Ghent University. F. Didot.
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 19–25
^ Cambier, Hubert (June 2016). "The Evolutionary Meaning of World 3". Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 46 (3): 242–264. doi:10.1177/0048393116641609. ISSN 0048-3931. S2CID 148093595.
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 48–51
^ Project Gutenberg eBook Erewhon by Samuel Butler.Poes.....
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 59–60
^ McCorduck 2004, p. 25
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 61–62 and see also The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 55–56
^ Crevier 1993:22–25
^ Samuel 1959
^ Schaeffer, Jonathan. One Jump Ahead:: Challenging Human Supremacy in Checkers, 1997,2009, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-76575-4. Chapter 6.
^ Novet, Jordan (17 June 2017). "Everyone keeps talking about A.I.—here's what it really is and why it's so hot now". CNBC. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 123–125, Crevier 1993, pp. 44–46 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
^ Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 46 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
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